Table 1 Epidemiologic studies on phytoestrogen intake in association with prostate cancer risk
From: Phytoestrogens and risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies
Reference | Study site/race | Design | Cases/controls or cohort size | Dietary assessment | Phytoestrogens | Contrast | Adjusted OR (95Â % CI) | Adjustment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Park et al. [27] 2008 | USA/multiethnic | Cohort | 4404/82,483 | QFFQ (118 items) | Genistein | <0.7 vs. ≥3.1 mg/1000 kcal | 0.94 (0.84–1.04) | Time since cohort entry, ethnicity, family history of prostate cancer, education level, BMI, smoking status, and energy intake |
Daidzein | <0.7 vs. ≥3.2 mg/1000 kcal | 0.92 (0.82–1.02) | ||||||
Total isoflavones | <1.6 vs. ≥7.2 mg/1000 kcal | 0.93 (0.83–1.04) | ||||||
Kurahashi et al. [28] 2007 | Japan/Japanese | Cohort | 307/43,509 | FFQ (147 items) | Genistein | <13.2 vs. ≥32.8 mg/day | 0.71 (0.48–1.03) | Age, area, smoking status, drinking frequency, marital status, BMI, intake of total fatty acids, dairy, vegetables, and fruits |
Daidzein | <8.5 vs. ≥20.4 mg/day | 0.77 (0.52–1.13) | ||||||
Nagata et al. [31] 2007 | Japan/Japanese | HCC | 200/200 | Semi-quantitative FFQ | Isoflavones | <30.5 vs. ≥89.9 mg/day | 0.48 (0.25–0.93) | Smoking, energy, and PUFA intake |
Genistein | <1.1 mg/day vs. ≥ 2.5 mg/day | 0.68 (0.39–1.20) | ||||||
Daidzein | <0.8 mg/day vs. ≥1.9 mg/day | 0.64 (0.36–1.17) | ||||||
Heald et al. [32] 2007 | Scotland/Scottish | PCC | 433/483 | SCG-FFQ | Isoflavones | ≤581.1 μg/day vs. ≥1982.8 μg/day | 1.18 (0.79–1.75) | Age, total energy intake, family history of PCa and BrCa, Carstairs Deprivation Index, smoking and energy intake: BMR ratio |
Bosetti et al. [29] 2006 | Italy/Italian, | HCC | 1294/1451 | FFQ | Isoflavones | ≤14.7 vs. ≥32.2 μg/day | 0.98 (0.76–1.26) | Terms for age, study center, education, body mass index, family history of prostate cancer, and total calorie intake |
Hedelin et al. [25] 2006 | Sweden/Swedish | PCC | 1499/1130 | FFQ (261 items) | Phytoestrogens | ≤1.18 vs. >4.71 μg/day | 0.74 (0.57–0.95) | Age, intake of antibiotics, zinc, animal fat, total energy intake, alcohol, vegetable fat, red meat during the last year |
Lignans | ≤113 vs. >213 μg/day | 0.85 (0.65–1.12) | ||||||
Isoflavonoids | ≤1.0 vs. >2.6 μg/day | 0.99 (0.77–1.28) | ||||||
Genistein | ≤0.27 vs. >1.08 μg/d | 0.97 (0.75–1.26) | ||||||
Daidzein | ≤0.49 vs. >1.11 μg/d | 1.22 (0.92–1.62) | ||||||
Lee et al. [30] 2003 | China/Chinese | HCC | 133/265 | FFQ | Genistein | <17.9 vs. >62.0 mg/day | 0.53 (0.29–0.97) | Age and total calories |
Daidzein | <10.0 vs. >36.3 mg/day | 0.56 (0.31–1.04) | ||||||
Strom et al. [34] 1999 | USA/American white | HCC | 83/107 | FFQ (modified block) | Genistein | Low vs. high | 0.71 (0.39–1.30) | Age, family history of prostate cancer, alcohol intake, and total caloric intake |
Daidzein |  | 0.57 (0.31–1.05) | ||||||
McCann et al. [33] 2005 | USA/American | PCC | 433/538 | FFQ (172 items) | Lignans | <335.4 vs. >603.9 μg/day | 0.66 (0.47–0.94) | Age, education, body mass index, cigarette smoking status, and total energy |
Word et al. [26] 2010 | UK/British Caucasians | Nested C-C | 203/800 | FFQ and 7-day food diaries | Daidzein | Low vs. high | 0.88 (0.72–1.09) | Age, height, weight, physical activity, social class, family history of prostate cancer, and daily intake of energy, fat, zinc, selenium, dairy products, and lycopene |
Genistein |  | 0.89 (0.72–1.09) | ||||||
Total isoflavones |  | 0.87 (0.70–1.09) | ||||||
Total lignans |  | 0.96 (0.71–1.31) | ||||||
Lewis et al. [35] 2009 | USA/American | HCC | 478/382 | Block FFQ (100 items) | Genistein | ≤196.0 vs. >196.0 mcg | 0.54 (0.33–0.89) | Age, education, BMI, smoking history, family history of prostate cancer in first-degree relatives, and total caloric intake |
Daidzein | ≤77.0 vs. >77.0 mcg | 0.54 (0.33–0.89) |